Thermoregulation in Human

The Body's Internal Thermostat: A Deep Dive into Human Thermoregulation

Introduction: Maintaining Life's Delicate Balance

Life on Earth thrives within specific environmental parameters, and for complex organisms like humans, maintaining a stable internal environment is paramount. This intricate balancing act, known as thermoregulation, is the fundamental biological process by which the body precisely controls its core temperature by coordinating heat generation with heat loss (National Center for Biotechnology Information, n.d.-a). It represents a cornerstone of homeostasis, the dynamic equilibrium essential for all physiological functions (Medical News Today, n.d.).

Diagram illustrating the Concept of Homeostasis

The significance of thermoregulation extends to the very foundation of cellular life. Enzymes, the biological catalysts that drive virtually every biochemical reaction in the body, are exquisitely sensitive to temperature fluctuations (Just In Time Medicine, n.d.). Even slight deviations from their optimal operating range can lead to denaturation, rendering them inactive and causing a cascade of impaired metabolic activities and cellular dysfunction (Just In Time Medicine, n.d.; National Center for Biotechnology Information, n.d.-a). This direct causal link underscores that thermoregulation is not merely about comfort but is a foundational physiological requirement for maintaining cellular integrity and metabolic efficiency, directly impacting the functionality of every organ system (Just In Time Medicine, n.d.; National Center for Biotechnology Information, n.d.-a). The precision of the body's thermoregulatory system is thus critical for survival, as it dictates the environment in which life's fundamental processes can correctly unfold (Just In Time Medicine, n.d.).

While often cited as 98.6°F (37°C), a healthy individual's core body temperature typically falls within a narrow range of approximately 36.5-37.5°C (97.7-99.5°F) (Healthline, 2022; Iowa State University, n.d.; National Center for Biotechnology Information, n.d.-a). This baseline can exhibit slight variations based on individual factors such as age, activity level, and time of day (Healthline, 2022; World Health Organization, n.d.). The body constantly adapts its temperature to internal and external conditions, such as the increased heat production observed during physical exercise (Healthline, 2022; Zubair, 2018).

However, disruptions to this finely tuned thermoregulatory ability can lead to dangerous extremes. Temperatures that are too low (hypothermia) or excessively high (hyperthermia) are both medical emergencies that demand immediate attention, as they can rapidly progress to severe complications and even death (Cleveland Clinic, n.d.; Healthline, 2022; National Center for Biotechnology Information, n.d.-b; National Center for Biotechnology Information, n.d.-a).

Hypothermia and Hyperthermia

Hypothermia occurs when the core body temperature drops below 96°F (35°C) (National Center for Biotechnology Information, n.d.-b). Initial symptoms are often subtle and non-specific, including shivering, hunger, nausea, and fatigue (Mayo Clinic, n.d.; SA Health, n.d.). As the condition progresses, symptoms worsen to include slurred speech, slow and shallow breathing, a weak pulse, clumsiness, cognitive decline, and impaired judgment (Mayo Clinic, n.d.; SA Health, n.d.). In severe hypothermia, where core temperature falls below 28°C (82°F), multiple organ systems begin to fail, potentially leading to cardiac arrest, brain damage, and ultimately, death (Healthline, 2022; National Center for Biotechnology Information, n.d.-b). A particularly concerning sign in severe cases is the cessation of shivering, which typically occurs when the core temperature reaches 30-32°C (National Center for Biotechnology Information, n.d.-b). Shivering is the body's primary physical mechanism for generating heat in cold conditions (Taylor & Francis, n.d.-b; Wikipedia, n.d.). Its absence, therefore, does not signify improvement but rather a severe failure of the body's thermoregulatory capacity, often due to depleted energy reserves or profound central nervous system depression (National Center for Biotechnology Information, n.d.-b). This can be tragically compounded by "paradoxical undressing," where individuals may remove clothing because they feel hot, further exacerbating heat loss despite being critically cold (National Center for Biotechnology Information, n.d.-b). This clinical detail is vital for public awareness and emergency response, as it counters the intuitive but dangerous assumption that a non-shivering hypothermic individual is less severe, emphasizing the need for immediate, aggressive rewarming interventions.

Conversely, hyperthermia refers to an uncontrolled rise in body temperature (Medical News Today, n.d.). Heat stroke, its most severe form, is characterized by a core temperature exceeding 104°F (40°C) and constitutes a medical emergency (Cleveland Clinic, n.d.; Healthline, 2022; SA Health, n.d.). Early indicators of heat-related illness include heavy sweating, dizziness, fatigue, nausea, and painful muscle cramps (Cleveland Clinic, n.d.; SA Health, n.d.). As heatstroke develops, symptoms can escalate to headache, confusion, flushed and unusually dry skin (though sweating may still occur), a sudden and significant rise in body temperature, disorientation, slurred speech, aggression, convulsions, seizures, or coma (SA Health, n.d.). Without immediate medical intervention, heatstroke can rapidly lead to permanent brain damage, organ failure, and death (Cleveland Clinic, n.d.; Healthline, 2022; SA Health, n.d.).

2. Finding Your Sweet Spot: The Human Thermal Comfort Zone

Human experience of temperature extends beyond mere physiological survival to a subjective state of well-being known as thermal comfort. This is not simply an objective measurement of temperature, but rather "that condition of mind which expresses satisfaction with the thermal environment and is assessed by subjective evaluation" (American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, 2010; SimScale, n.d.; Sustainability Workshop, n.d.). It represents an individual's psychological satisfaction with their surrounding thermal conditions, making it a highly personal and variable experience (Middel, n.d.; Sustainability Workshop, n.d.).

Thermal comfort is inherently subjective and challenging to measure objectively because it arises from a complex interplay of environmental and personal factors (Middel, n.d.; Sustainability Workshop, n.d.). Each individual perceives these sensations differently based on their unique physiology, current state, and even psychological expectations (Middel, n.d.; Sustainability Workshop, n.d.). For instance, a sensation of cold might be pleasant and refreshing when the body is overheated, but deeply unpleasant and concerning if the core temperature is already low (Sustainability Workshop, n.d.). Research indicates that environmental factors, such as air temperature and humidity, account for only about 50% of a person's thermal sensation, with the remaining 50% attributed to dynamic human parameters like activity level and clothing (Middel, n.d.).

Thermal comfort is fundamentally a delicate balance of heat transfer, where the heat generated by the occupant is balanced against the heat exchanged with the environment (Sustainability Workshop, n.d.). This balance is influenced by six primary factors, broadly categorized as environmental and personal (Hsqeconsultancy.co.uk, n.d.; SimScale, n.d.; Sustainability Workshop, n.d.):

Six Factors Influencing Thermal Comfort

Table: Factors Influencing Human Thermal Comfort

Category	Factor	Description/Impact	Units (where applicable)
Environmental Factors	Air Temperature	Temperature of the air surrounding the occupant. While commonly used, it's not a sole indicator of comfort. (Hsqeconsultancy.co.uk, n.d.; SimScale, n.d.)	°C / °F
	Radiant Temperature	Weighted average of temperatures from all surfaces surrounding an occupant. Has a greater influence on heat gain/loss than air temperature. (Hsqeconsultancy.co.uk, n.d.; SimScale, n.d.)	°C / °F
	Air Velocity	Speed of air movement across the body. Can aid cooling via convection but may cause drafts in cool conditions. (Hsqeconsultancy.co.uk, n.d.; SimScale, n.d.)	m/s (meters per second)
	Relative Humidity	Percentage of water vapor in the air. High humidity (over 80%) significantly impedes sweat evaporation, reducing cooling efficiency. (Hsqeconsultancy.co.uk, n.d.; SimScale, n.d.)	%
Personal Factors	Metabolic Rate (Met)	Energy generated by the human body from physical activity. Higher activity leads to more heat production, requiring greater heat loss. (Hsqeconsultancy.co.uk, n.d.; SimScale, n.d.; Sustainability Workshop, n.d.)	met (1 met = 58.2 W/m²)
	Clothing Insulation (Clo)	Thermal insulation provided by clothing. Too much insulation can cause heat stress; too little risks cold injuries. (Hsqeconsultancy.co.uk, n.d.; SimScale, n.d.)	clo (1 clo = 0.155 m²K/W)

 

The understanding of thermal comfort has evolved to include adaptive comfort models, which acknowledge that if discomfort arises, people will generally change their behavior to restore comfort (Sustainability Workshop, n.d.). This perspective is a significant conceptual shift from merely maintaining static environmental conditions. It implies that human agency—such as opening windows, adjusting clothing, or seeking shade—plays a substantial role in perceived comfort, particularly in naturally ventilated spaces (Sustainability Workshop, n.d.). This directly influences architectural and HVAC design, moving beyond rigid temperature setpoints to more flexible, user-responsive environments. It also highlights the inherent challenge that it is unmanageable to satisfy everyone in a given space due to physiological and psychological variations (SimScale, n.d.), underscoring the importance of providing adaptive opportunities for occupants.

To quantify thermal comfort, the Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) is a widely used thermal scale, ranging from -3 (Cold) to +3 (Hot), which was developed by Fanger and adopted as an ISO standard (ISO Standard 7730) (Sustainability Workshop, n.d.). The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) Standard 55-2010 recommends an acceptable PMV range for thermal comfort between -0.5 and +0.5 for interior spaces, aiming for conditions acceptable to at least 80% of occupants (American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, 2010; SimScale, n.d.; Sustainability Workshop, n.d.). The Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD) is a function of PMV, predicting the percentage of occupants who will be dissatisfied with the thermal conditions; as PMV deviates further from neutral (0), PPD increases (SimScale, n.d.; Sustainability Workshop, n.d.).

Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) scale

References

American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers. (2010). ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55-2010: Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy.

Britannica.com. (n.d.). Neural thermoreceptive pathways. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/science/thermoreception/Neural-thermoreceptive-pathways

Castellani, J. W., & Young, A. J. (2016). Human physiological adaptations to the cold. In L. E. Armstrong & J. R. L. D. C. Castellani (Eds.), Environmental Physiology (pp. 165-188). Springer.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (n.d.). Acclimatization | Heat. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/heat-stress/recommendations/acclimatization.html

Cleveland Clinic. (n.d.). Heat-Related Illness (Hyperthermia). Retrieved from https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/22111-hyperthermia

Healthline. (2022, October 18). Thermoregulation. Retrieved from https://www.healthline.com/health/thermoregulation

Hopkins Medicine. (n.d.). Fever. Retrieved from https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/fever

Houstonmethodist.org. (n.d.). How sweat works why we sweat when we are hot as well as when we are not. Retrieved from https://www.houstonmethodist.org/blog/articles/2020/aug/how-sweat-works-why-we-sweat-when-we-are-hot-as-well-as-when-we-are-not/

Hsqeconsultancy.co.uk. (n.d.). The six basic factors. Retrieved from https://hsqeconsultancy.co.uk/the-six-basic-factors/

Iowa State University. (n.d.). Body Temperature Homeostasis: Cold Pressor Test. In CURE Human Physiology. Retrieved from https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/curehumanphysiology/chapter/body-temperature-homeostasis/

JoVE. (n.d.). Mechanisms of Heat Transfer | Anatomy and Physiology. Retrieved from https://www.jove.com/science-education/v/16236/mechanisms-of-heat-transfer

Just In Time Medicine. (n.d.). Overview of Thermoregulation. Retrieved from https://www.justintimemedicine.com/curriculum/6935

Khan Academy. (n.d.). An introduction to cellular respiration (article). Retrieved from https://www.khanacademy.org/science/hs-bio/x230b3ff252126bb6:energy-and-matter-in-biological-systems/x230b3ff252126bb6:cellular-respiration/a/cellular-respiration-overview

Kenhub. (n.d.). Thermoreceptors. Retrieved from https://www.kenhub.com/en/library/physiology/thermoreceptors

Labster. (n.d.). Metabolic Heat Production. Retrieved from https://theory.labster.com/metabolic_heat_production/

Lumen Learning. (n.d.). Energy and Heat Balance. Retrieved from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-ap2/chapter/energy-and-heat-balance/

Mayo Clinic. (n.d.). Hypothermia symptoms causes effects. Retrieved from https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/hypothermia/symptoms-causes/syc-20352682

Medical News Today. (n.d.). Thermoregulation. Retrieved from https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/thermoregulation

Medlineplus.gov. (n.d.). Body temperature norms. Retrieved from https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/001982.htm

Middel, A. (n.d.). What is Thermal Comfort & What Influences It?. Sparks.learning.asu.edu. Retrieved from https://sparks.learning.asu.edu/videos/thermal-comfort

National Blood Service. (n.d.). Functions of blood: regulation. NHS Blood Donation. Retrieved from https://www.blood.co.uk/news-and-campaigns/the-donor/latest-stories/functions-of-blood-regulation/

National Center for Biotechnology Information. (n.d.-a). Physiology, Temperature Regulation - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf. Retrieved from(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK507838/)

National Center for Biotechnology Information. (n.d.-b). Hypothermia. In StatPearls. Retrieved from(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK545239/)

National Center for Biotechnology Information. (n.d.-c). Nonshivering thermogenesis. Retrieved from https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6722594/

National Center for Biotechnology Information. (n.d.-d). Mitochondrial ROS support non-shivering thermogenesis. Retrieved from https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6599457/

National Center for Biotechnology Information. (n.d.-e). Brown adipose tissue (BAT) is a thermogenic organ contributing to non-shivering thermogenesis. Retrieved from https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10164504/

Oxford Research Encyclopedias. (n.d.). Autonomic Thermoregulation. Retrieved from https://oxfordre.com/neuroscience/abstract/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264086.001.0001/acrefore-9780190264086-e-15

PubMed. (n.d.). Nonshivering thermogenesis. Retrieved from https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6722594/

ResearchGate. (n.d.). Autonomic Nervous System Central Thermoregulatory Control. Retrieved from(https://www.researchgate.net/publication/285946287_Autonomic_Nervous_System_Central_Thermoregulatory_Control)

Romanovsky, A. A. (2011). Neural control of shivering pathway. Journal of Physiology, 589(Pt 16), 3927–3930. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3167123/

SA Health. (n.d.). Heat-related illness signs symptoms and treatment. Retrieved from https://www.sahealth.sa.gov.au/wps/wcm/connect/public+content/sa+health+internet/healthy+living/protecting+your+health/environmental+health/healthy+in+the+heat/heat-related+illness+signs+symptoms+and+treatment

SimScale. (n.d.). What is ASHRAE 55 thermal comfort?. Retrieved from https://www.simscale.com/blog/what-is-ashrae-55-thermal-comfort/

Sustainability Workshop. (n.d.). Human Thermal Comfort. Retrieved from https://sustainabilityworkshop.venturewell.org/node/811.html

Taylor & Francis. (n.d.-a). Metabolic heat. Retrieved from https://taylorandfrancis.com/knowledge/Medicine_and_healthcare/Endocrinology/Metabolic_heat/

Taylor & Francis. (n.d.-b). Shivering. Retrieved from(https://taylorandfrancis.com/knowledge/Engineering_and_technology/Biomedical_engineering/Shivering/)

The Royal Society. (n.d.). Sympathetic regulation during thermal stress in human aging. Retrieved from https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4846507/

UF Health. (n.d.). Sweating. Retrieved from https://ufhealth.org/conditions-and-treatments/sweating

Wikipedia. (n.d.). Shivering. Retrieved from(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shivering)

World Health Organization. (n.d.). How is body temperature controlled?. Retrieved from(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279457/)

Zhu, X., & Li, F. (2023). Tonic inhibitory influence of neurons in the vLPO on skeletal muscle shivering. International Journal of Advanced Research in Biological Sciences, 10(11), 1-10. https://doaj.org/article/eefd79c4839043a9851d9b74294cb3d3

Zubair, M. (2018). The physiology role played by the hypothalamus during the thermoregulation in exercise. International Journal of Advanced Research in Biological Sciences, 5(11), 161-165. https://ijarbs.com/pdfcopy/nov2018/ijarbs14.pdf

Zubair, M. (2023). Autonomic control of sweating. PMC, 9884722. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9884722/

Zubair, M. (n.d.). Thermoregulation. EBSCO. Retrieved from https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/zoology/thermoregulation

 

Thermoregulation in Human "Physical Regulation"

The Body's Dynamic Responses: Physical Regulation of Heat

The human body employs a sophisticated array of physical mechanisms to maintain its core temperature, dynamically responding to both internal heat generation and external environmental conditions. These responses can be broadly categorized into those that dissipate excess heat and those that generate or conserve heat.

The Four Main Mechanisms of Heat Transfer

Cooling Down: Dissipating Excess Heat

When the body's internal temperature rises, it activates several physical mechanisms to shed excess heat:

·        Evaporation: This is arguably the most effective cooling mechanism, particularly during physical activity, accounting for approximately 22% of total body heat loss at rest (National Center for Biotechnology Information, n.d.-a). Sweat glands release liquid sweat onto the skin surface, which then cools the body as it evaporates (Houstonmethodist.org, n.d.; Medical News Today, n.d.). This process relies on a principle of physics known as "heat of vaporization," where excess body heat is absorbed and utilized to convert liquid sweat into vapor (Houstonmethodist.org, n.d.). Even without active sweating, a continuous, small amount of water evaporates from the skin and lungs at a rate of 600-700 mL/day, contributing to ongoing heat loss (National Center for Biotechnology Information, n.d.-a).

Vasodilation and Vasoconstriction

·        Vasodilation: The blood vessels located just beneath the skin surface widen, a process called vasodilation (National Blood Service, n.d.; Healthline, 2022). This physiological response increases blood flow to the skin, shunting warm blood away from the body's core (National Blood Service, n.d.; Healthline, 2022). As blood flows closer to the cooler skin surface, heat can more readily dissipate to the environment through radiation and convection (Medical News Today, n.d.; National Center for Biotechnology Information, n.d.-a; Taylor & Francis, n.d.-a).

·        Radiation: This mechanism involves the transfer of heat in the form of infrared rays (JoVE, n.d.; National Center for Biotechnology Information, n.d.-a; Taylor & Francis, n.d.-a). When the body temperature is higher than the surrounding environment, heat is radiated from the body to the cooler surroundings (National Center for Biotechnology Information, n.d.-a). This accounts for approximately 60% of total body heat loss at rest (JoVE, n.d.; National Center for Biotechnology Information, n.d.-a; Taylor & Francis, n.d.-a).

·        Conduction & Convection:

o   Conduction: Heat transfer occurs through direct physical contact between molecules of two materials (JoVE, n.d.; National Center for Biotechnology Information, n.d.-a; Taylor & Francis, n.d.-a). For example, heat is lost when skin comes into direct contact with a cooler object, like sitting on a cold bench (JoVE, n.d.). This mechanism accounts for a relatively small portion of heat loss, about 3% (JoVE, n.d.; National Center for Biotechnology Information, n.d.-a; Taylor & Francis, n.d.-a).

o   Convection: Heat is transferred to the air or water immediately surrounding the skin (JoVE, n.d.; National Center for Biotechnology Information, n.d.-a; Taylor & Francis, n.d.-a). As the air or water warms, it becomes less dense, rises, and moves away from the body, being replaced by cooler fluid, which then absorbs more heat. This continuous circulation helps carry heat away (JoVE, n.d.). Conduction into the air and subsequent convection together account for approximately 15% of total body heat loss (JoVE, n.d.; National Center for Biotechnology Information, n.d.-a).

Warming Up: Generating and Conserving Heat

When the body needs to conserve or generate heat to maintain its core temperature, it activates several mechanisms:

·        Vasoconstriction: The blood vessels under the skin narrow, a process called vasoconstriction (National Blood Service, n.d.; Healthline, 2022). This physiological response decreases blood flow to the skin surface, thereby retaining warm blood closer to the body's core and minimizing heat loss to the cooler external environment (National Blood Service, n.d.; Healthline, 2022; Medical News Today, n.d.). This is a key response activated by the sympathetic nervous system (National Center for Biotechnology Information, n.d.-a).

·        Shivering: This is an involuntary, rapid rhythmic contraction of skeletal muscles (National Center for Biotechnology Information, n.d.-a; Taylor & Francis, n.d.-b; Wikipedia, n.d.). Shivering generates a significant amount of heat as a byproduct of increased muscular metabolic activity (Taylor & Francis, n.d.-b; Wikipedia, n.d.). Maximum shivering can increase basal body heat production by four to five times (Taylor & Francis, n.d.-b). This reflex is typically initiated in response to a drop in skin temperature and intensifies if the core body temperature also begins to fall (Taylor & Francis, n.d.-b).

Shivering or exhibiting piloerection (goosebumps).

 

·        Piloerection (Goosebumps): The erector pili muscles, attached to hair follicles, contract, causing hairs to stand on end and creating "goosebumps" (National Center for Biotechnology Information, n.d.-a). While more effective in animals with dense fur, in humans, this action attempts to trap a layer of insulating air close to the skin, thereby reducing heat loss (Taylor & Francis, n.d.-b).

·        Behavioral Adjustments: Conscious actions play a significant and often immediate role in thermoregulation (Just In Time Medicine, n.d.). These include increasing physical movements, adopting a closed or curled body position to reduce surface area exposure, adding layers of clothing, seeking warmer environments or shelter, and increasing appetite to fuel metabolic heat production (Just In Time Medicine, n.d.; National Center for Biotechnology Information, n.d.-a; Zubair, 2018).

The body's thermoregulatory strategy involves a sophisticated interplay between involuntary physiological responses (such as sweating, vasoconstriction, and shivering) controlled by the autonomic nervous system (Medical News Today, n.d.; Oxford Research Encyclopedias, n.d.; The Royal Society, n.d.) and voluntary behavioral responses (like dressing warmer or seeking shade) (Just In Time Medicine, n.d.; National Center for Biotechnology Information, n.d.-a). This dynamic relationship reveals a hierarchical and complementary nature. Behavioral adaptations often serve as the first line of defense against thermal stress, providing rapid, conscious adjustments to the environment (Just In Time Medicine, n.d.). These conscious choices can significantly reduce the physiological load on the body's involuntary systems. For instance, simply putting on a jacket often suffices to maintain warmth, preventing the need for the more metabolically demanding process of shivering. If behavioral responses are insufficient or unavailable, the more energy-intensive physiological mechanisms are then activated. This highlights the profound adaptive capacity of humans, extending beyond pure biological reflexes to include sophisticated cognitive and cultural strategies, demonstrating an efficient, multi-layered thermoregulatory system (Castellani & Young, 2016; Just In Time Medicine, n.d.).

Various Behavioural Adjustments for Thermoregulation

Table: Physical Mechanisms of Heat Exchange

Mechanism	Type	Description	Approx. % of Heat Loss (at rest)
Radiation	Heat Loss / Gain	Transfer of heat via infrared waves between objects of different temperatures. (JoVE, n.d.; National Center for Biotechnology Information, n.d.-a)	~60% (Loss) (JoVE, n.d.; National Center for Biotechnology Information, n.d.-a)
Conduction	Heat Loss / Gain	Transfer of heat through direct contact between two materials. (JoVE, n.d.; National Center for Biotechnology Information, n.d.-a)	~3% (Loss) (JoVE, n.d.; National Center for Biotechnology Information, n.d.-a)
Convection	Heat Loss / Gain	Transfer of heat to air or fluid currents moving away from the body surface. (JoVE, n.d.; National Center for Biotechnology Information, n.d.-a)	~15% (Loss, with conduction) (National Center for Biotechnology Information, n.d.-a)
Evaporation	Heat Loss	Cooling through the vaporization of sweat from the skin surface. (Houstonmethodist.org, n.d.; National Center for Biotechnology Information, n.d.-a; Sustainability Workshop, n.d.)	~22% (Loss) (National Center for Biotechnology Information, n.d.-a)
Vasodilation	Heat Loss	Widening of blood vessels near the skin to increase blood flow and heat dissipation. (Healthline, 2022; National Blood Service, n.d.)	N/A
Vasoconstriction	Heat Gain / Conservation	Narrowing of blood vessels near the skin to decrease blood flow and retain heat in the core. (Healthline, 2022; National Blood Service, n.d.)	N/A
Shivering	Heat Gain	Involuntary, rapid contractions of skeletal muscles to generate heat. (National Center for Biotechnology Information, n.d.-a; Taylor & Francis, n.d.-b; Wikipedia, n.d.)	N/A
Piloerection	Heat Gain / Conservation	Contraction of tiny muscles causing hairs to stand, attempting to trap an insulating layer of air. (National Center for Biotechnology Information, n.d.-a; Taylor & Francis, n.d.-b)	N/A
Behavioral Adjustments	Heat Loss / Gain	Conscious actions like changing clothing, seeking shade/shelter, or altering body posture. (Just In Time Medicine, n.d.; National Center for Biotechnology Information, n.d.-a)	N/A

References

American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers. (2010). ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55-2010: Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy.

Britannica.com. (n.d.). Neural thermoreceptive pathways. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/science/thermoreception/Neural-thermoreceptive-pathways

Castellani, J. W., & Young, A. J. (2016). Human physiological adaptations to the cold. In L. E. Armstrong & J. R. L. D. C. Castellani (Eds.), Environmental Physiology (pp. 165-188). Springer.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (n.d.). Acclimatization | Heat. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/heat-stress/recommendations/acclimatization.html

Cleveland Clinic. (n.d.). Heat-Related Illness (Hyperthermia). Retrieved from https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/22111-hyperthermia

Healthline. (2022, October 18). Thermoregulation. Retrieved from https://www.healthline.com/health/thermoregulation

Hopkins Medicine. (n.d.). Fever. Retrieved from https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/fever

Houstonmethodist.org. (n.d.). How sweat works why we sweat when we are hot as well as when we are not. Retrieved from https://www.houstonmethodist.org/blog/articles/2020/aug/how-sweat-works-why-we-sweat-when-we-are-hot-as-well-as-when-we-are-not/

Hsqeconsultancy.co.uk. (n.d.). The six basic factors. Retrieved from https://hsqeconsultancy.co.uk/the-six-basic-factors/

Iowa State University. (n.d.). Body Temperature Homeostasis: Cold Pressor Test. In CURE Human Physiology. Retrieved from https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/curehumanphysiology/chapter/body-temperature-homeostasis/

JoVE. (n.d.). Mechanisms of Heat Transfer | Anatomy and Physiology. Retrieved from https://www.jove.com/science-education/v/16236/mechanisms-of-heat-transfer

Just In Time Medicine. (n.d.). Overview of Thermoregulation. Retrieved from https://www.justintimemedicine.com/curriculum/6935

Khan Academy. (n.d.). An introduction to cellular respiration (article). Retrieved from https://www.khanacademy.org/science/hs-bio/x230b3ff252126bb6:energy-and-matter-in-biological-systems/x230b3ff252126bb6:cellular-respiration/a/cellular-respiration-overview

Kenhub. (n.d.). Thermoreceptors. Retrieved from https://www.kenhub.com/en/library/physiology/thermoreceptors

Labster. (n.d.). Metabolic Heat Production. Retrieved from https://theory.labster.com/metabolic_heat_production/

Lumen Learning. (n.d.). Energy and Heat Balance. Retrieved from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-ap2/chapter/energy-and-heat-balance/

Mayo Clinic. (n.d.). Hypothermia symptoms causes effects. Retrieved from https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/hypothermia/symptoms-causes/syc-20352682

Medical News Today. (n.d.). Thermoregulation. Retrieved from https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/thermoregulation

Medlineplus.gov. (n.d.). Body temperature norms. Retrieved from https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/001982.htm

Middel, A. (n.d.). What is Thermal Comfort & What Influences It?. Sparks.learning.asu.edu. Retrieved from https://sparks.learning.asu.edu/videos/thermal-comfort

National Blood Service. (n.d.). Functions of blood: regulation. NHS Blood Donation. Retrieved from https://www.blood.co.uk/news-and-campaigns/the-donor/latest-stories/functions-of-blood-regulation/

National Center for Biotechnology Information. (n.d.-a). Physiology, Temperature Regulation - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf. Retrieved from(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK507838/)

National Center for Biotechnology Information. (n.d.-b). Hypothermia. In StatPearls. Retrieved from(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK545239/)

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