Cultural and Biological Diversity of Food Systems in Northeast India

 

1. Introduction: A Biocultural Diversity Hotspot

Northeast India, comprising the eight states of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim, and Tripura, is recognized as a global biodiversity hotspot. It is home to over 200 ethnic communities, each possessing a wealth of orally transmitted traditional knowledge regarding their environment (Dutta & Dutta, 2005). The region serves as a "cradle of angiosperms," harboring nearly 50% of India's flowering plants and 40% of its endemic species (Mao et al., 2016). This biological richness directly shapes the unique cuisine diversity, ethnobotany, and ethnomedical practices of the region.

2. Cuisine Diversity and Ethno-botany

The cuisine of Northeast India is inseparable from its ethno-botany—the study of how people use indigenous plants. Agriculture is the primary occupation, characterized by "Jhum" or shifting cultivation in the hills (Mao et al., 2016).

●       Staple Crops: Rice is the central staple, with over 9,650 varieties found in the region. Other major crops include maize, ginger, chilies, turmeric, and yams (Mao et al., 2016).

●       Wild Edibles: Tribal communities utilize a vast array of wild vegetables and fruits. For instance, the Mao Naga use the fruit of Solanum kurzii for its anti-allergy properties, while tribes in Nagaland cook young leaves of Oroxylum indicum to control hypertension (Mao et al., 2016).

●       Cultural Significance: Food is deeply tied to festivals and social identity, with specific plants often being endemic to certain tribal pockets (Dutta & Dutta, 2005).

3. Ethno-zoology and Ethno-medicine

Ethno-zoology involves the traditional use of animal resources for food and medicine. While plant-based medicine is more documented, animal products also play a vital role.

●       Ethno-medicine: Traditional medicine (TM) remains the oldest healthcare system in the region. The Manipuri community, for instance, uses Centella asiatica for cardiovascular issues and Citrus × limon for metabolic ailments (Sen et al., 2026).

●       Therapeutic Use of Animals: Fermented products like Jang kap (fermented buffalo skin) from the Ao Naga tribe demonstrate the intersection of food and animal resource utilization (Jamir & Deb, 2026).

 

4. Food Processing and Preservation Techniques

Given the humid climate and high perishability of raw materials, traditional preservation techniques are essential. These include:

1.     Drying/Smoking: Sun-drying is commonly used for fish and vegetables.

2.     Salting: Primarily used for fish.

3.     Fermentation: The most significant technique for flavor enhancement and shelf-life extension.

 

 

 

4.1 Fermented Food and Beverages

Fermentation is an age-old practice in Northeast India, often utilizing indigenous starter cultures and specific microbes like Lactobacillus plantarum and Bacillus subtilis (Deka, 2012).

●       Fish Fermentation: Ngari is prepared by fermenting sun-dried fish in oil-coated earthenware pots for 5–6 months, creating an anaerobic environment for maturation (Majumdar et al., 2023).

 

 

Product Type	Examples	Tribal Context / State
Vegetable	Gundruk (mustard), Anishi (colocasia leaves)	Sikkim (Gundruk), Ao Naga (Anishi)
Soybean	Axone/Akhone	Sema Naga (Nagaland)
Bamboo Shoot	Bastanga	Lotha Naga (Nagaland)
Fish	Ngari, Shidal, Hentak	Manipur (Ngari), Assam (Shidal)
Beverages	Zutho (Rice Beer)	Angami Naga (Nagaland)

 

5. Conventional Animal Husbandry and Animal Goods

Livestock is an integral part of the agricultural economy, contributing roughly 10.63% to the region's agricultural GDP (Kadirvel et al., 2021). The region practices an integrated subsistence, low-input tribal production system (NBAGR, 2022).

5.1 Key Animal Genetic Resources

●       Cattle: The Lakhimi (Assam) and Siri (Sikkim) are registered indigenous breeds. Siri cattle are known for their draught ability in hilly terrains (NBAGR, 2022).

●       Unique Species: The region is the primary home for Mithun and Yak.

●       Buffalo: The Luit (Swamp) buffalo is a registered breed found in Assam and Manipur (NBAGR, 2022).

5.2 Milk and Milk Products

●       Production Trends: Milk production has increased in most states (notably Arunachal Pradesh and Tripura) but has declined in Manipur and Nagaland (Veterinary Paper, 2025).

●       Consumption: Per capita milk availability is generally lower than the national average, except in Sikkim, which meets ICMR recommendations (302g/day) due to strong cooperative networks (ICAR, 2023).

●       Products: Beyond fresh milk, animal goods include meat (pork being most preferred), eggs, and fermented animal products like pork fat condiments used by Naga tribes (Jamir & Deb, 2026).

References

Deka, S. C. (2012). MiniReview: Fermented foods and beverages of the North-East India. International Food Research Journal, 19(2), 377–392. http://ifrj.upm.edu.my/19%20(02)%202012/(1)IFRJ-2012%20Deka.pdf

Cited by: 45

Dutta, B. K., & Dutta, P. K. (2005). Potential of ethnobotanical studies in North East India: An overview. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge, 4(1), 7–14. https://nopr.niscpr.res.in/bitstream/123456789/8489/1/IJTK%204(1)%207-14.pdf

Cited by: 112

Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR). (2023). Current scenario of milk production in the North-eastern states of India. Indian Journal of Animal Sciences, 94(10), 898–905. https://epubs.icar.org.in/index.php/IJAnS/article/download/153108/56232/434059

Jamir, K., & Deb, C. R. (2026). Studies on some fermented foods and beverages of Nagaland, India. International Journal of Food and Fermentation Technology, 3(2), 125–132. http://ndpublisher.in/admin/issues/IJFFV3N2c.pdf

Majumdar, R. K., et al. (2023). Fermented fish products of North-East India. Chronicle of Aquatic Science. https://chronicleofaquaticscience.in/public/temp/2073/fc47fd76922f67d771e95f3630ca2a01.pdf

Mao, A. A., et al. (2016). Plant wealth of Northeast India with reference to ethnobotany. ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283868339_Plant_wealth_of_Northeast_India_with_reference_to_ethnobotany

National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources (NBAGR). (2022). Farm animal genetic resources in agro ecosystem of north east India. Semantic Scholar. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/bee9/a832aebb88c61a0db9a240799a2dbea28ad5.pdf

Sen, S., et al. (2026). North East India an ethnic storehouse of unexplored medicinal plants. ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/261948668_North_East_India_an_ethnic_Storehouse_of_Unexplored_Medicinal_Plants

Veterinary Paper. (2025). Livestock sector in north-eastern region of India: An appraisal of livestock production and population. Journal of Entomology and Zoology Studies. https://www.veterinarypaper.com/pdf/2025/vol10issue8S/PartC/S-10-8-22-140.pdf